If an individual is harmed by a purchased device or product, damages may be recovered under strict product liability. The plaintiff, however, must be able to prove several things in order to prevail in suit against a distributor, manufacturer, or retailer. Generally, the product must have been “in an unreasonably dangerous condition” at the time of sale and intended to reach the consumer without any alteration.  Moreover, the injury suffered must be a direct result of the flawed product itself. 

Defects are not all created equal.  A plaintiff may bring a cause of action for either a manufacturing or design defect.  Generally speaking, in cases involving a  “manufacturing defect” only some products in the line of distribution will have been affected. The defect, for example, may have resulted from a malfunction in factory production. A design defect, on the other hand, which is integral to the product's structure, usually affects the entire line of the inventory, making each device dangerously defective.

Product liability can also be proven if a manufacturer does not provide adequate warning regarding a product's use. If the risk posed to the consumer is not patently obvious, the manufacturer is required to provide an understandable notice of warning to the customer. For an injured individual to win such a case, his or her injury must have resulted from the lack of warning or direction that could have prevented the injury sustained. 

If a plaintiff's injury results from that person's misuse of the product or his or her own negligence, that individual cannot prevail under the theory that the design or manufacture of the product was defective.

If an individual has been injured by a defective product, or because there was no evident warning of some dangerous aspect of the product's assemblage or use, a case of product liability may be brought. When considering whether to file a product liability lawsuit, an attorney specializing in the field should be consulted to assess whether the injured party has a viable case.

A durable power of attorney is an important part of an estate plan. It provides that, in the event of disability or incapacitation, a preselected agent can be granted power over the affairs of the individual signing the document. This power can be limited to specific decisions, like the decision to continue life sustaining treatment, or it can be much broader in scope to allow the agent power over the individual’s financial dealings.

Estate planning is meant to prepare for contingencies beyond an individual’s control. A traumatic accident could leave an individual without the ability to manage his or her own financial affairs. Debilitating diseases, like Alzheimer’s, can affect a person’s ability to make sound decisions for him or herself. In these scenarios, someone must be appointed to do make decisions on behalf of the incapacitated individual. Preparing a durable power of attorney as a part of an estate plan accomplishes three things. First, it gives the power of appointment to the individual, instead of to a judge. Second, it avoids the need for a potentially expensive court proceeding necessary to make that appointment. Finally, a power of attorney may be used to respond to time sensitive issues without waiting for a court hearing to grant an agent the power to act.

A power of attorney provides much flexibility for the individual signing it. It can take effect only upon disability, or right away, regardless of disability. It can specify what funds may or may not be used for. If a person does not want to live in an assisted living facility, he or she can make sure that money from his or her own bank accounts is not used for those purposes. Different assets can be managed by different agents. The power of attorney can give an agent power to distribute assets as gifts on a specific schedule to collaborate with an existing estate plan. The level of detail and amount of instruction that is possible as a part of the document is unlimited. It will always be quicker and more economical than a guardianship or conservatorship proceeding, and it will always serve the disabled person’s interests better than the broad powers granted to an individual by a court.

A landowner owes a duty of care to everyone who enters his or her property, regardless of whether that person is a trespasser, a licensee, or an invitee. This article is a discussion of the standard of care a homeowner must take for a person who has no permission to be on his or her property. It may not seem intuitive, but a person can be held responsible for injuries suffered by an intruder.

A homeowner is not permitted to set up dangerous traps for an intruder. A spring loaded gun set to fire on an intruder who opens a door is an example of such a trap. Burying landmines in the front lawn can lead to serious liability issues. Although these are extreme examples, any sort of trap set to purposely injure a potential trespasser is not permitted. The legal system does not tolerate violent self help as a means of protecting one’s land from criminal activity.

In some situations a homeowner may have a duty to warn a trespasser of potentially dangerous conditions. If a large hole exists on a property that is not obvious to a passerby, it may be a good idea to put up a sign letting people know of the hole’s existence. A sign in a window reading “beware of dog” can protect a landowner from liability if that dog mauls an intruder. It can also act as a deterrent, keeping would be thieves looking for another house to rob.

The most common way a homeowner is responsible for an intruder’s injuries is if their home contains an attractive nuisance. This is a potentially dangerous condition that may seem particularly inviting to trespassers. Trampolines, swimming pools, and swing sets can attract children onto a person’s property without invitation. Landowners must be aware that children who get hurt while playing on their property can sue for their injuries, even if they never had permission to be on the property. Even an empty pool can attract skateboarders participating in an inherently dangerous activity, creating liability for a homeowner. The best way to protect oneself from this liability is to build a tall fence to make it impossible for small children to trespass and to make it clear to older children that their presence is unwelcome.

Frivolous lawsuits are an all-too-common problem for small businesses. This is because, under current laws, there is almost no risk to trial attorneys or their clients for bringing even absurd cases to court. While large companies routinely retain attorneys and have the financial means to protect themselves from frivolous lawsuits, small businesses may be left out in the cold if served with an unwarranted lawsuit. Regardless of whether there is any validity to the plaintiff's claim, the small business owners will have to hire attorneys and will typically incur legal fees even if they win the case.

Disturbing Statistics about Frivolous Lawsuits against Small Businesses

There are two common types of frivolous lawsuits small business owners have to deal with: product or professional liability and personal injury. According to a recent survey, such unnecessary lawsuits cause financial, not to mention emotional, damage throughout the country. Some of the alarming statistics concerning small business owners in the U.S. are:

• Over 50 percent of all civil lawsuits target small businesses annually
• 75 percent fear being targeted by a frivolous lawsuit
• 90 percent settle frivolous lawsuits simply to avoid higher court costs
• Owners pay $20 million out of their own pockets to pay tort liability costs
• U.S. tort costs have increased more than the gross domestic product since 1950
• On average, those earning $1 million per year spend $20,000 of it on such lawsuits

How Can Small Business Owners Protect Themselves from Frivolous Lawsuits?

The best way for small business owners to protect themselves from frivolous lawsuits is to consult with an experienced, reputable business attorney to help them evaluate possible areas of vulnerability in their company. The attorney should assess their potential exposure in terms of:

• Employment law, including harassment, discrimination and wrongful termination
• Intellectual property (IP), protecting them from unintentional theft of IP
• Contracts management
• Electronically stored information (ESI)
• Fraud, establishing internal controls to prevent employee fraud

Beyond retaining helpful legal counsel to protect their businesses, small owners must, of course, ensure that they are taking proper precautions in terms of quality control of their own products, services, plant maintenance and staff behavior.

Insurance against Frivolous Lawsuits

If small business owners want optimal protection against frivolous lawsuits, they should look into the possibility of purchasing property or liability insurance for their company. After having an attorney examine their business practices to ensure that they are taking all possible precautions against being sued, they may want to consider buying an insurance policy their lawyer deems appropriate.

Testamentary capacity refers to a person’s ability to understand and execute a will. As a general rule, most people who are over the age of eighteen are thought to be competent to make and sign the will. They must be able to understand that they are signing the will, they must understand the nature of the property being affected by the will, and they must remember and understand who is affected by the will. These are simple burdens to meet. However, there are a number of reasons a person might challenge a will based on testamentary capacity.

If the testator of a will suffers from paranoid delusions, he or she may make changes to a testamentary document based on beliefs that have no basis in reality. If a disinherited heir can show that a testator suffered from such insane delusions when the changes were made, he or she can have the will invalidated. Similarly a person suffering from dementia or Alzheimer’s disease may be declared unfit to make a will. If a person suffers from a mental or physical disability that prevents them from understanding from understanding that a will is an instrument that is meant to direct how assets are to be distributed in the event of his or her death, that person is not capable of executing a valid will.

It is not entirely uncommon that disinherited heirs complain that a caretaker or a new acquaintance brainwashed the testator into changing his or her will. This is not an accusation of incapacity to make the will, but rather a claim of undue influence. If the third party suggested making the changes, if the third party threatened to withhold care if the will was not changed, or if the third party did anything at all to produce a will that would not be the testator’s intent absent that influence, the will may be set aside for undue influence. Regardless of the reason for the challenge, these determinations will only be made after the testator’s death if the will is presented to a court and challenged. For this reason, it is especially important for the testator to be as thorough as possible in making an estate plan and making sure that any changes are made with the assistance of an experienced estate planning attorney.

“Burden of proof” refers to the requirement that a plaintiff must demonstrate to prevail in a lawsuit. In a criminal case, the burden of proof is “beyond a reasonable doubt,” meaning that the prosecutor must prove that a defendant is guilty to a degree that a reasonable person would not hesitate to think he or she committed the crime.

 In any civil case, however, the burden of proof is much easier to meet. In a personal injury lawsuit, the plaintiff must prove the facts in his or her favor by a preponderance of the evidence. This means that if the weight of the evidence is on one side, that side wins the case. It is a simple comparison. This is the reason why a person could be found not guilty of committing a crime, but still be held financially responsible for that crime. There are well known examples of cases in which those accused of murder won an acquittal in criminal court. When the victim’s families filed civil suits for wrongful death, however, the defendants were found liable. Even though the evidence presented in the criminal trials did not prove the defendants' guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, the preponderance of the evidence in the civil cases proved sufficient.

In every case, there are different elements that all must be proven by a preponderance of the evidence. For example, in a case for which a plaintiff claims that someone else’s negligence caused them an injury, that plaintiff must prove four separate elements. First, he or she must show that the defendant owed a duty to the plaintiff, second, that the duty was breached, third, that the plaintiff suffered an injury, and finally, that the defendant’s breach was the proximate cause of his or her injury. When there is a motor vehicle accident, the defendant’s duty is to follow the rules of the road and to drive safely. It is breached when the defendant fails to do so. A plaintiff also has to prove that he or she suffered real injuries and that those injuries are the result of the car accident. Without having proved all the elements of the case by a preponderance of the evidence, a jury will find against a plaintiff.

There are several reasons that a will may prove invalid. It is important for testators to be aware of these pitfalls in order to avoid them.

Improper Execution

The requirements vary from state to state, but most states require a valid will to be witnessed by two people not named in the will. Some jurisdictions require the document to be notarized as well. Although these restrictions may be relaxed if the will is holographic (handwritten), it is best to satisfy these requirements to ensure that the testamentary document will be honored by the probate court.

Lack of Testamentary Capacity

Anyone over the age of 18 is presumed to understand what a will is. At the end of life, individuals are often not in the best state of mind. If court finds that an individual is suffering from dementia, is under the influence of drugs or alcohol, or is incapable of understanding the document being executed for some other reason, the court may invalidate the will on the grounds that the individual does  not have testamentary capacity.

Replacement by a Later Will

Whenever an individual writes a new will, it invalidates all wills made previously. This means that a will might be believed to be valid for months until a more recently executed document surfaces. The newest will always takes precedence, controlling how assets should be distributed.

Lack of Required Content

Every will is required to contain certain provisions to carry out its purpose. These provisions, ensure that the testator understands the reason for executing the document.  Although these provisions vary from state to  state, some are common to all jurisdictions. It should be clear that the document is intended to be a will. The document  should demonstrate an individual’s wishes in regard to what should happen to his or her property after death. A proper will should also include a provision to appoint an executor to act as an agent for the estate and enforce the terms of the will. If the document  lacks any of these provisions, the will may be declared invalid. 

Undue influence or fraud

A will that was executed under undue influence, coercion or fraud will be invalidated by a court. If a will has been presented to a testator for a signature as if it were any other document, like a power of attorney or a business contract, the court will find that the will was fraudulently obtained and will not honor it. If an individual providing end of life care with exclusive access to the testator threatens to stop care unless a will is modified, that modification is considered to be the result of undue influence and the court will not accept it.

A person who has a pool, trampoline, swing set, or other similar structure in their yard is usually required, by their homeowner’s insurance, if not by law, to also have a fence. This is because these structures are seen by the law as attractive nuisances. This means that a child who sees a such structures, and who may not appreciate the danger they present, is likely to trespass on the property to play in, on, or with them and injure him or herself. The doctrine of attractive nuisance puts an obligation on a homeowner to protect these children who are incapable of protecting themselves. 

The law does not limit liability to instances where the attractive nuisance is a pool or another type of recreational device. Children’s imaginations are vivid enough to turn any sort of dangerous structure or equipment into a playground. Piles of loose lumber and abandoned cars have been found by courts to qualify as attractive nuisances. An attractive nuisance must: 

• Be an artificial hazard in a place where children are likely to trespass
• Create unreasonable risk of harm to children incapable of understanding that risk
• Be a greater risk to potential victims than the utility of the hazard and the burden of its maintenance 

Determining when a child is innocent enough to qualify for protection under the attractive nuisance doctrine is also unclear. A person with diminished mental capacity may be considered a child for these purposes even if he or she is over the age of 18. The determination of who qualifies as a child is made on a case by case basis. 

Using a fence is a good way to make sure that a child passing by is not intrigued by a potentially dangerous condition. Even if the child is able to see over the fence, he or she will have trouble climbing over it, sufficiently discouraging the trespass in order to avoid liability for injuries sustained. A sign warning individuals of danger may be enough to protect a homeowner from liability, except when a child is unable to read the sign. Regularly inspecting property for potentially dangerous conditions and making sure trespassers stay away from your property are the best ways to avoid liability under the attractive nuisance doctrine.

How can I control my assets after death?

The practice of estate planning is dedicated to preserving an individual’s control over his or her assets after death. A simple will can control which individuals receive what assets, but a more thorough plan has the potential to do much more. Establishing a trust is the most common method used to exercise this kind of control. 

A trust can issue a bequest restricted by a condition; for example, a trust might be established to pay out $10,000.00 to a specific grandchild only once he or she has reached 18 years of age. Multiple payments can be made to the beneficiaries as long as the trust is funded. The trust can stipulate that the grandchild may have to graduate from college to receive the money, or even that he or she must graduate from a specific school with a minimum grade-point average or membership in a particular fraternity or sorority.

A trust can make the condition of payment as specific or as broad as the creator of the trust wishes. It may, for instance, bequeath benefits to a humanitarian organization on condition that the organization continues to provide food and shelter to the homeless. There is no limit to the number of conditions permissible in a trust document. Even when the conditions go against public policy and general norms and mores established by society, as long as the conditions may be met legally, they will be upheld by the court.

In order to create a trust, there must be a capital investment to fund it and a trustee must be named. The trustee is responsible for protecting the assets of the trust, investing them to the best of his or her ability, managing real estate and other long-term assets, interpreting the trust document, communicating regularly with the beneficiaries of the trust and performing all of these actions with a high level of integrity. Trust assets may be used to pay for expenses of managing the trust as well as to provide a stipend for the trustee if so provided for in the trust document.

If a trust document is not well written, it may be the target of a lawsuit seeking to dissolve the trust and disburse the assets held therein. Even if the trust is defended successfully, the costs of this challenge may deplete its coffers and frustrate the very reason for its creation. In order to avoid these possible pitfalls, it is imperative that a trust document be drafted by an attorney with a high degree of experience in estate planning law.

Soft tissue damage refers to damage done to the muscles, ligaments, and tendons throughout the body.  Often referred to as sprains, strains, contusions and tendonitis, soft tissue damage is usually caused by a traumatic event such as a slip and fall or a traffic accident.  It can result in swelling, bruising, and loss of function.   Immediately after an injury, the area affected by soft tissue damage should be protected, rested from any strenuous activity, kept cool with ice to regulate swelling, compressed and elevated.  If pain continues after 72 hours, it is likely that the injury is more than a simple sprain or strain.  When the soft tissue is inflamed for a long period of time it could result in serious, long-term damage.

When soft tissue damage exists in the back and the spinal column is compressed, it may result in what is commonly referred to as a pinched nerve.  Each vertebrae is separated by a gel filled sac that acts as a cushion between the bones.  When the muscles surrounding and supporting the spine are inflamed, it pushes the bones together, squeezing the sac and causing it to bulge, called a bulging disc.  In more serious cases, the sac actually ruptures.  This is called a herniated disc.  Besides being incredibly painful, these conditions can result in weakness or numbness in the extremities, known as radiculopathy.

MRI can confirm the existence of a bulging or herniated disc.  Treatment varies depending on the severity of the case.  For some, physical therapy and chiropractic manipulation will be enough to heal the damaged area.  This is considered conservative treatment.  There is the possibility that an epidural injection to the affected area could help reduce inflammation and give the injury an opportunity to heal.  If nothing else is successful, spinal fusion or decompression may be an option to reduce pain. A doctor should be consulted before engaging in any sort of treatment.  

The conversation about a person’s last wishes can be an awkward one for both the individual who is the topic of conversation and his or her loved ones. The end of someone’s life is not a topic anyone looks forward to discussing. It is, however, an important conversation that must be had so that the family understands  the testator’s final wishes before he or she passes away. If a significant sum is being left to someone or some entity outside of the family, an explanation of this action may go a long way to avoiding a contested will. In a similar vein, if one heir is receiving a larger share of the estate than the others, it is prudent to have this action explained. If funds are being placed in a trust instead of given directly to the heirs, it makes sense for the testator to advise his or her loved ones in advance.

When a loved one dies, people are often in a state of emotional turmoil. Each deals with grief differently and, often, unpredictably. Anger is a common reaction to loss, one of the five stages postulated to apply to everyone dealing with such a tragedy. Simply by talking to loved ones ahead of time, a testator can preempt any anger misdirected at the estate plan and avoid an unnecessary dispute, be it a small family tiff or a prolonged legal battle.

The executor of the estate must be privy to a significant amount of information before a testator passes on. It is helpful for the executor to know that he or she has been chosen for this role  and to have accepted the appointment in advance. The executor should know the location of the original will. Concerns of fraud mean that only the original copy of a will can be entered into probate. The executor should be aware of all bank accounts, assets, and debts in a testator’s name. This will avoid a tedious search for documents after the decedent passes on and will ensure that all assets are included as part of the estate. The executor of an estate should be aware of all memberships, because it will be the executor’s responsibility to cancel them. An up-to-date accounting of all assets and debts will simplify the settlement of the estate for an executor significantly.